Human Development in India - HDI, Education, Health, Skills, and Social Indicators

Human Development in India

Human development is about expanding what people can be and can do, not just increasing national income. In the Indian context, this idea is especially important because a country can grow fast economically while large sections remain trapped in poor health, weak learning outcomes, malnutrition, gender gaps, and insecure work. Human development shifts the focus from "How much does the economy produce?" to "How well do people live, learn, stay healthy, and participate in society?"

One of the most influential frameworks here is economist Amartya Sen's capability approach. It argues that development should be evaluated by people's real freedoms (capabilities) to achieve valuable "functionings" such as being well-nourished, educated, mobile, safe, and able to participate in decisions affecting their lives. In short, money is a means; capabilities are the ends. This is why UPSC often asks questions linking education, health, nutrition, skills, and social inclusion with growth, demographic dividend, poverty reduction, and SDGs.

1) Human Development Index (HDI): Concept, Components, and Methodology

The Human Development Index (HDI) is the most widely used composite indicator to compare human development across countries. It combines three basic dimensions:

• Health: measured by life expectancy at birth
• Education: measured by expected years of schooling and mean years of schooling
• Standard of living: measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in PPP terms

Methodologically, HDI is calculated as the geometric mean of normalized indices for these three dimensions (health index, education index, income index). This matters for UPSC because:

• HDI is broader than GDP per capita.
• HDI has a data lag (usually 1–2 years) and uses international comparable sources.
• HDI does not directly capture inequality, environment, or quality aspects (unless you look at related indices like IHDI).

India's latest HDI performance (Human Development Report 2025)

In the Human Development Report 2025 (data for 2023), India is in the medium human development category and shows incremental improvement compared to the previous year. India's key HDI components for 2023 are: HDI value 0.685, life expectancy 72.0 years, expected years of schooling 13.0, mean years of schooling 6.9, and GNI per capita 9,047 (PPP, 2021 $).

India's HDI trend (1990–2023): what the numbers show

For UPSC, trend analysis is more important than a single-year rank. India's HDI has increased over the long term, with a pandemic-era dip/slowdown and subsequent recovery.

UPSC way to write this: "India has made long-run gains in HDI since 1990, but progress is uneven and slowed during shocks. The policy challenge is to convert incremental gains into faster improvements by addressing quality of education, public health and nutrition, gender inequality, and employment-linked skills."

2) Education Indicators: Literacy, Enrolment, Dropout, and Gender Parity

Education is both an intrinsic capability and a driver of productivity, social mobility, demographic dividend, and better health outcomes. UPSC answers should cover: access, participation (GER/NER), retention (dropout), learning outcomes, and equity (gender, social groups, region).

Literacy rate: recent national estimate (PLFS 2023–24)

Literacy is the most basic education outcome. A recent official reference notes that the literacy rate for persons aged 7 years and above is 80.9% (all religions combined) as per PLFS 2023–24.

UPSC angle: Literacy gains are necessary but not sufficient. The bigger challenge is functional literacy and foundational numeracy (FLN), which determines learning outcomes and future employability.

School education: key participation and retention indicators (UDISE+ 2024–25)

India's school education system is tracked through UDISE+ (Unified District Information System for Education Plus). In the UDISE+ 2024–25 release, national indicators show improvements in dropout rates, retention, and participation at critical stages.

Interpretation for UPSC: India has improved retention and transition, but the big structural challenge is still at secondary level where dropout and low retention persist, especially for disadvantaged groups and in economically weaker regions. Secondary completion is the "gateway" to skills, jobs, and higher education, so improving secondary retention has high human development returns.

Higher education: GER and gender parity (AISHE 2021–22)

For higher education, AISHE (All India Survey on Higher Education) is the key national source. Highlights include:

• Higher education GER (18–23 age group): 28.4 in 2021–22 (up from 23.7 in 2014–15).
• Female GER: 28.5 in 2021–22; Gender Parity Index (female GER / male GER) 1.01 (female GER higher than male GER).
• Total enrolment: nearly 4.33 crore in 2021–22.

UPSC nuance: Gender parity in enrolment is improving, but parity in labour market outcomes and leadership remains weak. So, exam answers should separate "education parity" from "economic parity".

From access to learning: why learning outcomes matter

UPSC increasingly expects you to go beyond enrolment and talk about learning outcomes: foundational literacy and numeracy, teacher quality, school governance, assessment reforms, and digital divide. Even with improved GER and lower dropout, weak learning outcomes can produce "schooling without learning," limiting capability expansion and employability.

3) Health Indicators: Life Expectancy, IMR, MMR, Malnutrition, and Disease Burden

Health is a core capability and a powerful multiplier: healthier people learn better, earn more, and are more productive. UPSC answers must combine outcome indicators (life expectancy, IMR, MMR, malnutrition) with system-level determinants (primary healthcare, financing, workforce, nutrition, WASH, social protection).

Life expectancy

Life expectancy is embedded in HDI and summarizes survival conditions across ages. India's life expectancy used in HDR 2025 (data for 2023) is 72.0 years.

Infant mortality (IMR)

IMR has shown a long-term decline, but levels remain uneven across states and socio-economic groups. An official parliamentary annex notes: "As per the SRS Report 2022, the IMR of the country is 26 per 1000 live births."

For exam writing, always link IMR to: institutional deliveries, neonatal care, immunisation, nutrition, safe water, sanitation, maternal health, and quality of primary health centres.

Maternal mortality (MMR)

Maternal mortality has declined substantially. A PIB release on maternal and child mortality trends notes that India's MMR declined to 93 (2019–21) from 130 (2014–16).

UPSC framing: MMR reduction is a classic example of how targeted public health interventions (RMNCAH+N under NHM), better ANC, institutional births, emergency obstetric care, and referral systems translate directly into human development gains.

Malnutrition and nutrition outcomes

Nutrition is one of India's most persistent human development constraints because it affects survival, learning, immunity, and productivity across the life-cycle. According to a PIB note summarizing NFHS-5 (2019–21): stunting reduced from 38.4% to 35.5%, wasting from 21.0% to 19.3%, and underweight from 35.8% to 32.1%.

UPSC linkage: Malnutrition is not only a "health" issue. It is also linked with poverty, food security, maternal education, sanitation, women's status, and intra-household resource allocation. Hence, multi-sector convergence is essential.

Disease burden: the changing profile

India faces a double burden of disease: communicable diseases and maternal-child conditions persist in some pockets, while non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and lifestyle conditions rise with urbanisation and ageing. For UPSC, the key is to show:

• Shift from "mortality" dominance to "morbidity + chronic care" dominance.
• Need for stronger primary healthcare, screening, and continuity of care for NCDs.
• Public health preparedness for outbreaks and climate-linked health risks.

4) Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Gender is central to capability expansion because women's education, health, agency, and work participation strongly determine inter-generational outcomes. UNDP provides two complementary indices:

• GDI compares female and male HDI values (gender gaps in human development achievements).
• GII measures gender-based disadvantage in reproductive health, empowerment, and labour market participation.

India's GDI (HDR 2025, data for 2023)

India's GDI value (2023) is 0.874 (Group 5). Female HDI is 0.631 while male HDI is 0.722. The table also highlights large gender gaps in estimated income: female estimated GNI per capita 4,543 vs male 13,273 (PPP, 2021 $).

UPSC point: India's gender gaps are increasingly concentrated in economic opportunities (income, workforce participation, job quality), not only in schooling access.

India's GII (HDR 2025, data for 2023)

India's GII value is 0.403 with rank 102. Component indicators include women's share of parliamentary seats 14.8%, female labour force participation 35.1% vs male 76.4%, and female population with at least some secondary education 43.5% vs male 61.1%.

How to use in answers: GII provides ready-made evidence to argue that gender inequality is not just a social justice issue; it is a direct economic constraint on productivity, demographic dividend, and inclusive growth.

5) Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) and Human Development Linkages

Human development and poverty are deeply linked: poverty reduces capabilities (nutrition, schooling, health access), and low human development sustains poverty across generations. The MPI framework is useful because it measures deprivation in multiple dimensions, typically aligned with health, education, and living standards.

India's recent MPI progress (2013–14 to 2022–23)

A PIB release summarising NITI Aayog's discussion paper reports that India's multidimensional poverty headcount ratio declined from 29.17% (2013–14) to 11.28% (2022–23), and 24.82 crore people escaped multidimensional poverty over nine years.

UPSC linkage with HDI:

• MPI reduction improves HDI indirectly by improving survival, schooling continuity, and living standards.
• Human development spending (health, nutrition, education) is both anti-poverty policy and growth policy.
• State-wise MPI decline patterns matter for federal policy design: "poor states improving faster" can reduce regional inequality, but quality gaps may remain.

6) Government Schemes Strengthening Human Development

For UPSC, it is not enough to list schemes. You must connect scheme design → implementation pathway → measurable indicators (GER/NER, dropout, IMR/MMR, malnutrition, insurance coverage, skills and placements).

Education schemes and initiatives

• Samagra Shiksha: A centrally sponsored umbrella programme covering school education (pre-school to class 12), focusing on access, equity, and quality, including teacher training, infrastructure, and digital initiatives.
• PM-POSHAN: The school meal programme (mid-day meals) aimed at improving nutrition, enrolment, and retention, especially among disadvantaged children.
• NEP 2020 reforms: Emphasis on foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN), early childhood care and education, assessment reforms, and vocational exposure.

Health schemes and initiatives

• National Health Mission (NHM): Strengthens public health systems, RMNCAH+N services, human resources, and infrastructure, especially in high-focus states.
• Ayushman Bharat: Includes (i) PM-JAY for financial protection for hospitalisation, and (ii) Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) for comprehensive primary healthcare.
• Nutrition convergence: POSHAN Abhiyaan, Anaemia Mukt Bharat, and data platforms like Poshan Tracker support improved outcomes (stunting, wasting, anaemia).

UPSC best practice: Always add 2–3 lines on "implementation constraints" (capacity, last-mile delivery, governance, data quality) and "how to improve" (decentralisation, community health workers, robust monitoring, social audits).

7) Skill Development: Skill India Mission, PMKVY, ITIs, and Apprenticeships

Skills convert education into productivity and decent work. India's demographic advantage can become a dividend only if youth are healthy, educated, skilled, and matched to labour market demand.

Skill India Mission and PMKVY

PMKVY is a flagship skilling scheme under the Skill India Mission framework (with evolving phases). Recent updates indicate scale-up in PMKVY 4.0 implementation. A PIB release notes that 27.08 lakh candidates have been trained under PMKVY 4.0 (as on 7 December 2025), across multiple sectors and districts.

Apprenticeships (NAPS) and workplace learning

Apprenticeships bridge the education-to-employment gap because they provide real workplace exposure, discipline, and job readiness. A parliamentary annex notes that apprentices engaged under the National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) increased from 35,601 (2018–19) to 9,85,641 (2024–25).

How to write a strong UPSC paragraph on skills

• Problem: Skills mismatch, informal employment, low apprenticeships base historically, low female participation, uneven quality of training providers.
• Policy response: PMKVY, ITI modernisation, apprenticeship expansion (NAPS), industry-linked curriculum, digital skilling, recognition of prior learning.
• Way forward: Outcome-based funding, placement tracking, stronger district skill committees, local industry mapping, and integrating skills with secondary education.

8) State-wise Disparities in Human Development

India's most distinctive human development feature is inter-state and intra-state variation. The same national average can hide sharp differences in literacy, school retention, maternal and child health, nutrition, and employment. These disparities are driven by:

• Differences in fiscal capacity and governance quality across states
• Historical investments in education and public health
• Social factors: gender norms, caste exclusion, early marriage, migration
• Geography and infrastructure constraints (tribal belts, hilly regions, remote islands)

UPSC angle: Use state disparities to argue for cooperative federalism, need-based transfers, and targeted interventions (Aspirational Districts/Blocks approach, health and education indices, outcome-based monitoring).

Why state disparities matter for HDI and SDGs

• National improvement in HDI can be slowed by persistent low performance in a few populous states.
• Human development improvements are often "state-led" because health and school education are largely state subjects with shared responsibilities.
• Policy design must recognise different starting points: what works in a high-performing state may not directly work in a low-capacity state without institutional strengthening.

9) Challenges in Human Development in India

Despite progress in indicators like HDI, literacy, and mortality decline, India's human development constraints are structural and interconnected. UPSC answers should present challenges under access, quality, equity, and governance.

A) Education challenges

• Learning outcomes gap: Schooling years do not always translate into foundational skills.
• Secondary bottleneck: Dropout and low retention at secondary level remain major constraints.
• Teacher capacity and governance: Need for continuous teacher training, academic support, and accountability.
• Digital divide: Connectivity and device gaps worsen post-pandemic inequality.

B) Health challenges

• High burden of malnutrition: Stunting, wasting, and underweight remain significant.
• Primary healthcare gaps: Quality, workforce shortages, and uneven infrastructure.
• Out-of-pocket expenditure risk: Financial vulnerability despite coverage expansions.
• Inter-state variation: Some states remain far behind on maternal and child health.

C) Gender inequality challenges

• Low female labour force participation: A major drag on inclusive growth and GII performance.
• Economic inequality within households: Reflected in large gender gaps in estimated income.
• Safety, mobility, unpaid care burden: Limits women's capability expansion.

D) Skills and employment challenges

• Skills mismatch: Training not always aligned with local industry demand.
• Quality assurance: Need for credible certification and employer acceptance.
• Transition to decent work: Many remain in low-productivity informal jobs.
• Apprenticeship scale-up: Progress is visible, but still needs deeper industry integration.

E) Data and measurement challenges

• Lag and comparability: International indices have lags; national datasets have methodological changes.
• Quality vs quantity: Many indicators measure access (enrolment, coverage) but not quality (learning, care standards).
• Need for district-level dashboards: Better convergence planning and local accountability.

10) Way Forward: An Exam-Ready Strategy for Improving Human Development

A strong UPSC "way forward" should be specific, layered (short/medium/long term), and linked to SDGs and measurable indicators.

A) Strengthen foundational capabilities early (life-cycle approach)

• Universalize quality early childhood care and education (ECCE).
• Prioritize foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3 through teacher support, remediation, and community engagement.
• Target adolescent health and nutrition (especially girls) to break intergenerational malnutrition.

B) Fix the secondary education bottleneck

• Expand access to secondary schools in underserved blocks and improve safe transport.
• Reduce dropout through scholarships, mentoring, flexible learning pathways, and stronger counselling.
• Integrate vocational exposure and career guidance in secondary stage to connect education with work.

C) Shift health policy from "schemes" to "systems"

• Strengthen primary healthcare: staffing, drug availability, diagnostics, and referral linkages.
• Improve quality of maternal and newborn care to reduce IMR/MMR sustainably.
• Expand prevention and screening for NCDs with continuity of care through HWCs.

D) Nutrition as a convergence mission

• Focus on the "first 1000 days" (pregnancy to age 2) for maximum returns.
• Converge PM-POSHAN, POSHAN Abhiyaan, WASH, and women's empowerment to reduce stunting and wasting.
• Strengthen local procurement and diet diversity in school and ICDS meals.

E) Make skilling demand-driven and employment-linked

• Scale apprenticeships with stronger incentives for MSMEs and local industry mapping.
• Track outcomes: placement, earnings, retention, and skill utilization, not just training counts.
• Upgrade ITIs with modern equipment, trainers, and industry partnerships.

F) Reduce gender inequality in the economy

• Enable women's work through childcare, safe mobility, flexible work, and skilling.
• Increase women's leadership and political representation; strengthen SHGs and enterprise support.
• Recognize and reduce unpaid care burden through public services and social norms change.

11) SDG Linkages: SDG 3, 4, 5, and 8

UPSC answers become stronger when you map human development issues to SDGs with clear indicators.

UPSC PYQs on Human Development, Education, Health, Skills, and Social Sector

Practice MCQs

1. Which of the following best captures Amartya Sen's capability approach to development?

   • A. Development is measured only by per capita income growth
   • B. Development is the expansion of people's real freedoms and opportunities to live the life they value
   • C. Development is the reduction of fiscal deficit and inflation
   • D. Development is the increase in industrial output

   Answer: B

   Explanation: The capability approach evaluates development by people's actual opportunities and freedoms (capabilities), not merely by income.

2. In the Human Development Index (HDI), the education dimension is measured using:

   • A. Literacy rate and dropout rate
   • B. Expected years of schooling and mean years of schooling
   • C. Net enrolment ratio and gross enrolment ratio
   • D. Government expenditure on education and teacher-pupil ratio

   Answer: B

   Explanation: HDI uses expected years of schooling (for children) and mean years of schooling (for adults) as education indicators.

3. Which statement about Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is correct?

   • A. GER counts only children of the official age-group for that level
   • B. GER can exceed 100 because it includes over-age and under-age enrolment
   • C. GER is always lower than NER
   • D. GER directly measures learning outcomes

   Answer: B

   Explanation: GER includes enrolment of all ages at that level, so it can exceed 100 if many are over-age/under-age.

4. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is defined as:

   • A. Number of deaths of children under five per 1,000 population
   • B. Number of deaths of infants under one year per 1,000 live births
   • C. Number of maternal deaths per 1,000 live births
   • D. Number of neonatal deaths per 100,000 population

   Answer: B

   Explanation: IMR measures infant deaths (below 1 year) per 1,000 live births and reflects child health and health system performance.

5. Which index directly incorporates women's representation in parliament and labour force participation to assess gender inequality?

   • A. HDI
   • B. GDI
   • C. GII
   • D. MPI

   Answer: C

   Explanation: GII combines reproductive health, empowerment (including parliamentary seats), and labour market participation to measure gender inequality.

6. India's multidimensional poverty reduction is best understood when poverty is measured through:

   • A. Only income and consumption expenditure
   • B. Only unemployment rates
   • C. Multiple deprivations in health, education, and living standards
   • D. Only inflation-adjusted wages

   Answer: C

   Explanation: MPI captures multiple deprivations (health, education, living standards), making it closer to human development concerns than income-only measures.

7. Which of the following schemes is most directly associated with improving nutrition and school participation through meals?

   • A. Samagra Shiksha
   • B. PM-POSHAN
   • C. Ayushman Bharat
   • D. National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme

   Answer: B

   Explanation: PM-POSHAN provides meals in schools, improving nutrition, attendance, and retention, especially for disadvantaged children.

8. Apprenticeships are often considered effective for skill development because they:

   • A. Replace formal schooling entirely
   • B. Provide only classroom-based training
   • C. Offer workplace-based learning and smoother school-to-work transition
   • D. Reduce the need for certification and assessment

   Answer: C

   Explanation: Apprenticeships provide real workplace exposure, improving employability and aligning skills with industry demand.